• Systems thinking and critical/soft systems methodologies emerge as the unifying frame for analyzing and designing knowledge management and information systems, emphasizing holistic integration of people, processes, and technology to tackle complexity [1], [2], [4].

• Knowledge management reference models and system-oriented architectures provide structured blueprints for identifying processes, cognitive domains, and architectures required to support KM systems, enabling business-aware KMSS development and strategic alignment [3], [1].

• Formal grammar-based representations, process modelling and management, and rapid prototyping illustrate a methodological shift toward explicit process modeling and adaptable design workflows in knowledge-intensive engineering [7], [8], [6].

• System-of-systems and metasystems engineering concepts address complexity in large-scale knowledge-enabled engineering, integrating heterogeneous components and coordinating transitions across development stages [2], [5].